Pointers in C

Greeting to all!!!

Hope you all are having a great time. But for “C” lovers, the time is going to become more better. C language is the most simplest of programming languages with just 32 keywords defined. But still, the tricks a C program can contain has unlimited possibilities. Here we unravel one such part.

Most of the typical question asked in any technical exams with “C and Data Structures” as its course comprise of Pointers and Trees. With Pointers as the building blocks of such data structures, problem often get complex when actually they are not.
So here, lets brush up the concept of Pointers, and see whether those problems are really that hard or not.

Note: While writing this article, I have considered that you all already know about primitive variable declarations in C.

Pointers are just a variable, with a special property that it saves the reference of other objects in the program.

Syntax for declaration of a pointer variable:
<datatype> * <pointer_name>;

Ex.   int *p;
float *q;

Pictorially, these statements are nothing more than this:

         

And since references are nothing but memory addresses, so all pointers irrespective of the datatype specified with them, they stores similar kind of data( a memory addresses which are in form of unsigned integer type). And sizeof() for all pointer variables return equal value, again irrespective of the datatype specified. That is, even though the variable of character and integer require different size of memory block to store data, pointer variable of both datatype require equal amount.

So what is the need of specifying data type in pointer declaration??

The datatype provided with pointer declaration serves two purposes:

1. To specify the base of pointer variable used during the arithmetic operation performed on them, usually increment/decrement operations.
2. Secondly, it is used during the resolution of the data pointed by the pointer. How many block of memory to read, to correctly fetch the data.

Before we go further in details of pointers, you need to get familiar with two operators and two terms as well.

The operators are * and &.

1. * Operator – It has two uses. Firstly, it is used in declarations to specify that the variable being declared is a pointer variable. Secondly, when used with a variable in an expression it is used to fetch the data stored at the memory location specified by the variable.
2. & operator- It is also called address operator, as it is used to fetch the memory address associated with the variable specified.
   E.g.  int x=6;  //declares a block on integer in memoryassignment of pointer variables occurs as
   int *p;
   p=&x;   // returns the address of the block named ‘x’

   now to print the value of x,either of the two can be used
   printf(“%d”,x);  or  printf(“%d”,*p);

This operation can be pictorially shown as:

The two term that need to be get familiar with are

1. Lvalue  –  Those values which are only permitted on the left side of the assignment operator( “=”). Such values have the property to be resolved to some memory block or placeholders for storing data. Permitted values are variables.
   In reference to the following declarations,
   int x;
   int *p;

correct statements:
x=6;
*p=29;

These statements as these are incorrect:
2=x;    //  incorrect. “compiler error : lvalue required”. constants are not lvalues.
&x=29; // same as above. as “&x” is resolved to memory address of x, a constant value.

• Rvalue –  These values are permitted to exist on the right hand side of assignment operator( “=”). Valid Rvalue are constants and memory references.
  

  Thus it can be said that with any variable there are two kinds of values associated, an lvalue and a rvalue.

  Considering a memory tape, and variable as a memory blocks

 

When the variable is present on the right hand side of the assignment operator( “=”) it is resolved to its lvalue to accept( or store) the value returned. And when the variable appears on the right hand side of the assignment operator( “=”) it is resolved for its rvalue.

Pointer variables are used to store lvalues.

Lets get hands on some codes.lets take a look at how pointers are actually used.
(The codes written here are written, with the parts of program not relevant with the concept described here, but must be included while execution.)

Pointer Representation in memory

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Consider this piece of code:

int a=6; int *b; b=&a; *b=10;

So,what are the values of a, b, &a, &b, *b, *a?

To answer this problem, lets take a visual look of the process going on here
Step 1: “int a=6;” declares a variable named “a” at memory location 500(assumed).

Step 2: “int *b;” declares a pointer variable of integer type named “b” at memory location 600(assumed).

Step 3: “b=&a;” resolves the memory address of block “a” and stores it in “b”.

Step 4: “*b=10;” now since “b” is a pointer variable pointing to “a” the value is stored at memory block pointed by “b”” that is “a” is modified to store new value.

The situation was like this”:

and now it becomes:

Again, a look at the question:

what are the values of a, b, &a, &b, *b, *a?

Answer:

a=6            //value assigned to a
b=500       //memory address of a(it was assigned)
&a=500     //memory address of a(resolved. its not an assignment statement)
&b=600     // memory address of b(resolved)
*a             // invalid statement. a is not a pointer variable.
*b=10       //value stored at memory block pointed by b.

You can also modify value stored in “a” using pointer “b” with a statement like
*b = (*b) + 10;
*b= (*b) * 2;       // this statement uses *- unary operator foe dereferencing as
//well as *- binary operator for multiplication.

 

(*) is a unary operator and requires an lvalue to operate. Similarly (&) is an unary operator that requires a non-constant value to operate upon. An object that has an lvalue associated with it.

The statements like *2 and  &5 are invalid. Dereferencing(*) operator used with a variable of primitive datatype is also an invalid operation.

 

Operations on pointers

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While declaring the pointer we have to mention a datatype, but what all pointer variable does is store a memory address. What’s with the datatype then?

The answer to the above question can only be understood when you consider operations on pointer variables.

When we assign a block’s memory address to a pointer variable, only the address of the first memory block gets stored in pointer variable. So for character variable the memory block allocated is o block. 2 memory block together forms an integer variable. 4 memory block form a float variable. So when we dereference a pointer variable using (*) operator, these datatypes helps compiler to understand how many blocks of memory to read, to correctly read the data stored.

Increment and Decrement operators also behave differently for pointers. The actual increment in the value of pointer variable is determined by the datatypes provided. Increment and decrement is done in terms of next or previous memory blocks of similar datatype to point to.

for example, considering sizeof(int)=2.
if int *b;

and b has a value stored(say 500) then
statements:
(b+1)    // returns 502.
(b-2)     // returns 496.
(b++)    // changes the value of b to 502.
(b—)     // changes the value of b to 498.

This is all that was needed to understand the pointers.

Some more details

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Lets take a look at a few more concepts using the similar concepts but worth mentioning.

There are several types of Pointers:

• Pointers to a variable of primitive Data type.
  e.g. int *p;
• Pointer to an array(single dimensional/ multidimensional).
  e.g. int *p=&a                              // “a” is an array variable
  int (*p) [num_row]                //  “p” is pointer to pointer array
• Pointer to a structure
  e.g. struct node *ptr=&node1;   // “node1” is a variable of struct node type
• Pointers to a function.
  e.g. int (*fp)(int,int)=add;     // “fp” stores the return address of the function
• Void pointers.
  e.g. void *vp=(int *)&i;
• Pointer to a pointer.
  e.g.  int **p;                         // “p” is a pointer to a pointer of integer type.

Void pointers are special pointers with no datatype specified. It can store address of any datatypes but arithmetic operations like increment/decrement operations are not allowed on void pointers. Neither (*) operators are permitted to operate on Void pointers

Void pointers are used to pass references to functions. or store some references temporarily for other operations.

Pointers to pointers are special pointers which points to other pointers

. Such pointers often

comes in handy when dealing with array of pointers

. So conceptually its even possible to declare a pointer to pointer to pointer to an int. and 4 levels. and even more.

C compiler puts a limitation on the number of dereferencing operation performed in a single statements to 12 operations.

This limitation is only because of performance issues and for no other issues.

Some Example codes and Explanations :

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Code 1:

#include<stdio.h> void main() { char *p=”hai friends”,*p1; p1=p; while(*p!=”) ++*p++; printf(“%s %s”,p,p1); }

Answer:
                 ibj!gsjfoet

Explanation:

++*p++ will be parse in the given order

• 1. *p that is value at the location currently pointed by p will be taken
• ++*p the retrieved value will be incremented
• when ; is encountered the location will be incremented that is p++ will be executed

Code 2:

#include<stdio.h> void main() { static char names[5][20]= {“pascal”,”ada”,”cobol”,”fortran”,”perl”}; int i; char *t; t=names[3]; names[3]=names[4]; names[4]=t; for (i=0;i<=4;i++) printf(“%s”,names[i]); }

Answer:
Compiler error: Lvalue required in function main

Explanation:

Array names are pointer constants. So it cannot be modified. The reason being when you declare an array a block of memory is allocated that very instant, which need not be changed through out the program.

 

Code 3:

#include<stdio.h> void main() { void *v; int integer=2; int *i=&integer; v=i; printf(“%d  %d”, *i ,*v); }

Answer:
Compiler Error. We cannot apply indirection on type void*.

Explanation:

Void pointer is a generic pointer type. No pointer arithmetic operation can be performed on it. Void pointers are normally used for,

• Passing generic pointers to functions and returning such pointers.
• As a intermediate pointer type.
• Used when the exact pointer type will be known at a later point of
  time.

Code 4:

#include<stdio.h> void main() { int i=5; printf(“%d”,++i++); }

Answer:
Compiler error: Lvalue required in function main

Explanation:

++i yields an rvalue. For postfix ++ to operate an lvalue is required.

 

Code 5:

1. const char *a; 2. char* const a; 3. char const *a; -Differentiate the above three declarations.

Answer:

• ‘const’ applies to char * rather than ‘a’ ( pointer to a constant char )
  *a=’F’ : illegal
  a=”Hi” : legal
• ‘const’ applies to ‘a’ rather than to the value of a (constant pointer to char )
  *a=’F’ : legal
  a=”Hi” : illegal
• Same as 1.

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Now, that was interesting, wasn’t that. I am sure for those who already knew Pointers must have discovered some new facts and those who were afraid of Pointers, now know, Pointers aren’t really that hard.
Solve more problems because with each new problem you solve, you improve the understanding of the concepts you have.( That’s a key to everything out there, to learn ).

So get yourself geared up, because I am definitely sure that now you will be able to solve half of the questions from any C aptitude paper. More than half the questions are from  pointers.
Do Try some more problems!!

Crap!! End-Semesters knocking…

Have a nice time, you all.
signing off for now!!

Kr. Abhishek

Starting with Linux: Where to get help!!!

Hello friends!!!
Warm Greeting to you all.

It was my Campus Placements(got one at Samsung India). Exams(not quite good). My own Lectures sessions on C and DS(Simply Awesome!).

It was defiantly a long pause.But now it really feels great to be back, writing again….

The talk is about Linux and how it has become an important tool for every IT Professional and even Consumers to IT Products. But still many of us are unaware of this great resource at a compass so close.

Many of us don’t even realize as we move more and more into the new era of computing and digitization, Linux is becoming attached to everyone’s lives, from small embedded systems like music players to a Web servers all are running Linux Based Operating Systems.

But the most important is our Personal Computing needs, Linux being an open source project has been evolving ever since Linus Torvalds made it open and free. Many Corporation took up the project and a little customization and we have a huge number of distributions. Some of the widely used distributions being RHEL,Fedora Project, Ubuntu, OpenSUSE, Debian, FreeBSD, but the list doesn’t ends there.

The best thing about Linux based Operating Systems is that,except for a few,

They are free to download and open for distribution.

The Linux Kernel is also open and available at www.kernel.org free to download and open for any independent developer to modify it to suit his requirement and even come up with their own version of distribution.

When something this powerful is this close, why not to get start with it. Though Linux is powerful and resourceful, but still not that easy to get comfortable with at once.
For this the Linux community has a made available a lot of offline and online help for the new users joining. Online forums and mailing lists have been made available in thick.

It isn’t possible for one to provide complete guidance in this technology(it’s really vast). But better to tell where to get help from when struck.

Here is a list of resources to get help from when you are stuck:

Manual Pages–

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These are made available with every distribution of Linux and are a concise description of individual commands, drivers, file-formats or library routines.

These can be read by “man” command followed by command name. Man pages makes a largest contribution in providing help to beginners as well as professionals for its availability.
Man pages have been categorized into 9 sections according to their contents:

Section	Contents
1	User- Level commands and applications
2	System calls and Kernel error codes
3	Library calls
4	Device drivers and Network Protocols
5	Standard file formats
6	Games and demonstrations
7	Miscellaneous files and documents
8	System administration commands
9	Obscure kernel specification and interfaces

Calling man title  formats a specific manual page and sends it to the terminal, where title is usually a command, device or a filename.

Notes :   Man pages are gzip compressed documents kept in directory “/usr/share/man/”. “man” command uncompresses them on the fly to show the contained information and also creates a cache in “/var/cache/man/” for further use.

Texinfo Documents-

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These are a secondary source of information invented by GNU folks in response to man pages by AT&T. GNU packages provides help documents in Texinfo files rather than man pages.
Texinfo documents related to any package can be read by using  “info” command in terminal.
Much similar to  man  command, info command is also passed with a title to fetch help on the topic.

HOWTOs-

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These are short notes and guides made available on various topics/subjects and is maintained by The Linux Documentation Project, at http://tldp.org/. It is a central repository for all sorts of useful Linux information.

A centralized system for Linux related documents and these are made available in various languages, irrespective of the language limitation of the developer.

These documents are available for reading, download and anybody could contribute to TLDP.

Notes  :  The documentation are maintain for each projects, projects often go outdated in  a very short span. Its necessary to check the time stamp for the document. Also check for the original source of information for any changes as Linux software base and documents are mostly maintained by a third parties like Internet Systems Consortiums and Apache Software Foundation.

Distribution-Specific Documentation-

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With every release the enterprise often provide with the implementation notes and guidebook for the particular line of distributions and for each version available. These documents can easily be found on the installation media or on the websites of the Enterprise.

Some of the popular ones are :

http://fedoraproject.org/
http://www.FreeBSD.org/
http://www.redhat.com/rhel/
http://www.ubuntu.com/
http://www.opensuse.org/

Apart from these the software project specific pages also provides a good documentation. Some of which are:

http://www.gnu.org
http://www.gnome.org
http://www.kde.org
http://www.sourceforge.net

Its not possible to name each and everyone of them. But to add to the list there are thousands more.

Other Helps-

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The best thing about Linux, there is a great big Linux-loving world out providing help.

Many User Groups and even small developers independently providing documentation to help new users join the ever increasing community. Subscriptions to news letters available free of cost. Dedicated Blogs and webpages for the users, forums for discussion.

Some of them can be listed as

linux.slashhdot.org               – a Linux-specific arm of tech news giant Slashdot.
lwn.net                                        – Linux and open Source news aggregator.
freecode.com                           – Large index of Linux and Unix software.
www.linux.org                         – Linux information clearing house (unofficial).
www.linux.com                       – Linux information clearing house (unofficial).
www.linuxhq.com                  – Compilation of Kernel-related info and patches.
www.linuxworld.com           – Online magazine from the Computerworld.
www.tucows.com                   – Multiplatform software archive.
www.linuxfoundation.org  – Dedicated to promotion and development of Linux.

That is a lot of help and support for Linux Users, isn’t it!

The Linux community has a lot to offer. None other platforms is provided with this range of online support and resources for users and developers. It just requires your one step towards this vast area in IT and there are thousands to help you.

With many MNC preferring its employees being familiar with any of the Linux version for working, the reason being its free, its powerful and contain infinite possibilities as its open source.

So improve your chances in the professional world!
Start with Linux, and if you get stuck anywhere, you now know where to get help from.
With this to conclude, or better say to start a series of posts.

aloha!
Kumar Abhishek.